Treating Depression In Insecurely Attached Adolescents
Kassie Markovich
Ball State University













Abstract
The intention of this paper is to examine secure and insecure attachment styles in child-parent relationships and how they facilitate in the mental development of adolescents. This paper will address the correlation between negative schemas and depressive symptoms. Furthering the understanding and importance of recognizing the period of adolescent development as unique and addressing effective treatment methods for this stage of development is the hope of this essay.











Discussion
According to the founder of attachment theory, Bowlby (1982) said that an infant will develop a type of relationship with its primary caregiver based on the attention and protection it receives. This relationship is referred to as attachment. For a child to develop a secure attachment with its caregiver the latter would show responsiveness and sensitivity to the child’s needs. For example, when the child cries and the caregiver responds attentively the former is learning he will be cared for. As the relationship develops the child will interpret the interactions as a reflection on his personal value. In other words, the child will internalize the message that he is wanted. (Baldwin, Fehr, Keedian, Seidel, & Thomson, 1993)
If the situation was reversed the child would develop an insecure attachment. This type of bonding is a result of negative or lack of experiences with the caregiver. Insecure attachment styles can be classified into three types. A fearful-avoidant child would have a negative view of himself and a negative view of others. He is generally distrustful of others because of harmful interactions with the caregiver. An anxious-ambivalent child would have a negative view of himself and a positive view of others. His caregiver would have had an inconsistent parenting style of positive and negative interactions. As a result the child would view others as having the potential to be helpful and harmful. Lastly, a dismissive-avoidant child would have a positive view of himself and a negative view of others. As a reaction to negative treatment with the primary caregiver this child would have a high opinion of himself and a low opinion of others. Not clarified earlier, a securely attached child would have a positive view of himself and others. This child would have had caring and attentive parents growing up. As a result he would be able to see his own worth and the good in others. (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) These examples of attachment styles show that early interactions between child and caregiver play a significant role in how children learn to view themselves and the world they live.
According to a study done by Liu (2006) the gender of the parent can play a role in how the child interacts with his environment. For a girl, having a secure attachment with both her father and mother helps prevent the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence. This finding suggests that girls use both their mother and father as a security when dealing with relationship stress. Boys, on the other hand, are found to only use the secure attachment with their mother when confronted with psychosocial stress. This might be because there is a negative stigma regarding men expressing helpless emotions, such as sadness. As a male they may not feel welcome to come to their father with this type of problem. (Leadbeater et al., 1995) However, research has shown that a secure bond with both parents can cause children to become less aware of negative interpersonal relations because of their learned positive view of self and others. This finding would correlate with Bowlby’s attachment theory. The studies reflected show that parental involvement from both mother and father are important factors in the developing mental health of their child.
The relationship a child develops with his parents will influence his adolescent development. Beck (1976) introduced the theory of cognitive vulnerability that states that an insecurely attached child will learn negative schema. That negative worldview will make him susceptible to dysfunctional attitudes. Dysfunctional attitudes can leave the child vulnerable to low self-esteem. (Kuiper & Olinger, 1986) Low self-esteem is often associated with depressive symptoms. (Hankin, 2005) Having a negative view of self in adolescence works as a double-edged sword because the child will not only deal with low self-esteem but also have difficulty building a positive support group of peers that could help combat depressive symptoms. Blatt (1974) found that adolescent women often became depressed because of negative self-image and fear of abandonment. Lack of confidence in self and maintaining a relationship would prevent the teenager from actively developing friendships. In a research study by Gillihan, MacGeorge, & Samter (2005) social support was shown to provide emotional support and help members within the group manage stress in a healthy way. In another study by Pauley and Hess (2009) depression and treatment by alcohol consumption were related. When the participants in the study received emotional support for their depression they no longer relied on alcohol because their preferred treatment was positive socialization. The benefits of social support show to be very helpful in combating excessive stress and depressive symptoms. Sadly those who are inhibited in developing these relationships because of learned negative schema are cutting themselves off from healthy and effective treatment.
Thus far we have seen the effects early childhood relationships have on developing mental wellbeing. Research has shown the benefits of positive involvement of both opposite gendered parents. These parent child relationships play a significant role in teaching the child how to value himself and others. If the parent-child interactions are negative the adolescent could become cognitively vulnerable to dysfunctional attitudes. These attitudes are often associated with low self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Low self-esteem will inadvertently work against gaining the needed support to treat depression.
The negative schema learned from the primary caregivers can have a significant impact on the adolescent’s mental wellbeing. That is why when I become a counselor I want to utilize family therapy in treating adolescent depression. This type of therapy views the problems of the child as a sign of other problems within the family unit. (Duffy, Kirsh, & Atwater, 2008) The cause affect relationship between parent-child interaction displays the negative outlook of some children to be family related. Having the parents understand where the problems originate in the home is important in correcting the negative behavior and working on developing a supportive environment for the child. Also having the child understand the outside influence that helped define his world view will help him to recognize them for what they are and move past them by replacing negative schema for positive schema. Having both mother and father in session with the child will help identify individual parent-child relationship patterns instead of using one parent to represent both parents or attributing all influence to one parent. As research has shown, mothers and fathers play different roles within child interaction. Understanding a complex view of influences in the home in order to create a positive environment would be benefited with both parents in session.
When family therapy isn’t possible I would use person-centered therapy and existential therapy in treating adolescent depression. Person centered approach offers unconditional acceptance and understanding to the client. (Duffy, Kirsh, & Atwater, 2008) When treating a client with depressive symptoms who lack emotional support from friends, creating a welcoming environment would allow that person to gradually develop trust in another person. Making sure the client is never judged and feels understood will allow me to build a relationship of emotional support that the adolescent could rely on. The trust developed would open the door for conversation. It would also require the client to alter their worldview because he would not only have found someone to trust, but someone who found value in him. This could possibly facilitate a session developing positive schema towards relationships with others and self.
Once the trust based relationship was given time to grow I would use existential therapy. This form of treatment promotes the personal growth through free choice. (Duffy, Kirsh, & Atwater, 2008) I think this is important in working with adolescents who have negative relationships with their parents because during that time period the child is limited in what he can do to change the situation. Because of cultural and financial reasons the client is dependant on the negative relationship for survival. This is a simplistic view and does not address emotional attachment but is still a relevant factor to adolescent depression treatment. Using existential therapy, the client would be taught to feel empowered in his free choice. Focusing on his mental freedom could help him develop a positive worldview regardless of what is being taught or implied at home. Helping the client develop long term goals and breaking them down into short term goals would help him think futuristically and still feel satisfied with the gradual progress of a positive future.
Conclusion
As a counselor, ideally I would want to help the parents and child develop a supportive relationship. This would help the child gain a positive view of himself and others without losing a relationship with his parents. Unfortunately, sometimes removing the client from a harmful situation is the best choice, especially if the caregivers refuse to engage in positive change. My ultimate goal is to help adolescents overcome depressive symptoms and from the research I’ve gathered, helping the client develop a positive self-view and healthy support group seems most effective. Restoring an insecurely attached client to a secure attachment would allow the client to experience life with positive regard and hope for a happy future.













References
Baldwin, M. W., Fehr, B., Keedian, E., Seidel, M., & Thomson, D. W. (1993). An exploration of the relational schemata underlying attachment styles: Self-report and lexical decision approaches. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 19, 746 – 754.
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226 – 244.
Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and emotional disorders. New York: International University Press.
Blatt, S. J. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 107 – 157.
Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and loss. Vol. 1: Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.
Duffy, K., Kirsh, S., & Atwater, E. (2008). Psychology for living: Adjustment, growth, and behavior today. (10th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hankin, B. L., Kassel, J. D., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Adult attachment dimensions and
specificity of emotional distress symptoms: Prospective investigations of cognitive risk and interpersonal stress generation as mediating mechanisms. Personality Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 136–151.

Kuiper, N. A., & Olinger, L. J. (1986). Dysfunctional attitudes and a self-worth contingency model of depression. Advances in Cognitive-Behavioral Research and Therapy, 5, 115–142.

Leadbeater, B. J., Blatt, S. J., & Quinlan, D. M. (1995). Gender-linked vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms, stress and problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 1-29.

Liu, Y. (2006) Paternal/Maternal Attachment, Peer Support, Social Expectations of Peer Interactions, and Depressive Symptoms. Adolescence, 705-722

women and rock

Women in Rock: Are Females Losing Their “Place”?

Abstract

This paper will display the effects rock music has had on the influence of gender stereotypes. It will begin by showing the changes women have made using rock and roll and then looking at the challenges women still face within the rock performance scene today.
Introduction
Rock music has always stood out because of its rebellion. Descending from Blues music it brought together whites and blacks at a time when racial discrimination was prominent. It was known for it’s sexual lyrics during a decade when intimacy was saved for marriage. Hippies grew out their hair and later on punk rockers sported the Mohawk. This radical change did not fit the women’s role of complacency in this male dominated scene. (Rogers 14-16)
Throughout the decades prominent female figures in rock and roll had made changes that encouraged women to discard the gender role and be whatever they wanted to be. In this paper I will show the effects women in rock music have had on the acceptance of gender roles and the challenges they still continue to face.

Literature Review
Several of the pieces I used as a reference were introduced to me in class. One of these pieces was titled Sex and Gender: What Do We Know? By Margaret Mooney Marini. This article takes a look at the current gender roles in America and analyses the gender-biased characteristics to see if there are any truths behind these roles. I then read a piece entitled Content Analysis and Gender Stereotypes in Children’s Books by Frank Taylor. This article looks at the effect children’s books have on developing gender roles within young children. The piece did an excellent job showing the less subtle yet prominent aspects of our culture that affects our own perceptions. I also read an article entitled Big Girls Don’t Cry by Andrea Sachs. In this piece the author shows the prejudice against crying because of the lack of masculine association with the particular trait. This prejudice represents the prejudice against “female” characteristics, or in other words, against females in the work place. I also read various interviews with leading female rock and roll stars and conducted an interview with a local female musician. I did a comparison analysis of the movies Bye Bye Birdie and Across the Universe to see what gender roles have changed since the early 1960’s. Finally I read an academic essay titled Violence, Rebellion, and Rock and Roll: A Comparative Analysis of American Youth Culture 1950s and 1990s by Geoffrey Rogers that explains the rebellious aspect of rock and roll.


Methodology
I began learning about my topic by reading the assigned articles in class. This gave me a decent start into understanding gender stereotypes and picking a topic. When I picked a topic I did research into what made rock and roll stand out. I then did more research into the women who had a role in this field. After that my knowledge was strong enough to compose interview questions and I interviewed a local female musician to try to understand what the music scene was like today. Finally I did a comparative analysis of two movies from different time periods.
Discussion
Roles We Play:
Gender Roles are the roles men and women identify with in American society. Many believe these roles are inborn but research has shown there are few natural differences between men and women. The areas with proven differences, like a young girl’s verbal skills compared to a young boy’s, are small. Still, gender stereotypes are common in America and begin to influence us at a young age (Marini 99). Parents who are already believers in defined gender roles will raise their child to act within that role (Marini 109). Influence can come from other more subtle areas such as children’s books. The most popular children’s books in America contain gender stereotypes. They will generally display the female character as weak, content, and subordinate. The male will be independent, assertive, and brave. (Taylor 303-304) It is easy to see why many people have ideas of what male and female is when there are so many influences in our culture.
Rock and Roll Rebellion:
Rock music is characterized by its rebellious nature. It challenged racial segregation, fashion, ways of expression, and levels of modesty. It’s very roots were a result of blues music and jazz. This fact brought together different races as the Caucasian race took over the genres and gave it their own twist. It’s grounds in sex also date back to it’s beginning in blues as it obtains its name from an old blues expression meaning sexual intercourse. This genre was a controversy during a time when modesty was much more important in society. (Rogers 14-16)
One Sided Music Scene:
Rebelliousness is not a female gender role characteristic according to the coding frame of female and masculine traits. (Taylor 304) This could explain why rock and roll began as a male dominated field. In the 1963 film Bye Bye Birdie, the woman’s role in rock music was a sex object who swooned over the male rock star. In the coding frame sex object is listed as a female trait. This gender role didn’t last for very long within rock music as Joan Jett decided to start the first all female rock band in 1977 called the Runaways. The band sported a tough image that intimidated the men that came to their concerts. Clad in leather and wearing clothes that drew attention upward to their eyes they looked as if they were the ones who wanted to have to sex with the boys. The Runaways reversed the roles on the men and refused to be their objects (Bijhan).
Past Influences the Present:
The Runaways formed to show women they could do whatever they wanted. Jett, continually questioned on why she didn’t wear dresses or talk like a lady, responded with, “Who made the rules?” (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BA6R15iVGM)
Cyndi Lauper brought the feminist movement into her music in the early 1980s. Her hit song Girls Just Want to Have Fun was about encouraging women to feel as free as men felt to do whatever they wanted. (Gaar 264-265) Lauper also made a fashion statement by bringing rebellious punk style clothing and hair to pop culture. She also wore a corset, an object used to bring in the waist at the risk of difficulty of breathing, during part of her career to show the imprisonment of gender roles. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iciwnWx3Vj4)
Debbie Harry, the female front woman of Blondie can be said to be the first to have taken control of her sexuality and use it at her own discretion. She made punk sexy but wasn’t trying to be a used sex object. At the same time she challenged the levels of modesty for women. This displayed a strong sense of rebellion coming from a female musician. Her style influenced the future attitude of Cyndi Lauper. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iciwnWx3Vj4)


Times Are Changing:
When I watched the 1960s movie Bye Bye Birdie I noticed the women’s roles had a part of subordination to the men. Across the Universe, made in 2006, also takes place in the 1960s but the portrayal of women’s roles is very different. This movie showed a female rock musician outperforming her male counterpart. Also the leading female character played an active role in the hippie movement, displaying leadership within a rebellious period in history. Though both films intended to reflect culture of the same time period, the latter contains independent, rebellious, and socially uninhibited female characters.
I interviewed a current local female musician, Cici Blegh, to see if she thought gender biases were still present in the rock music field. Cici noted that initially views towards her role as a sex object were evident in the audience, but as the band progressed in gaining a standing within the communities the audience saw the band and not just her. Interestingly she noted that she hasn’t encountered any prejudices with the bands she’s worked with. She says, “ I’ve met a lot of great dudes and bands that we’ve played with. They’ve been really supportive.”
Conclusion
60 years ago women didn’t have a place in rock music because gender roles didn’t make room for them. Because of women like Joan Jett and Debbie Harry not only are women gaining place in the rock scene, but they are also influencing the way women continue to see themselves. This change is being reflected in movies as well. Movies like Across the Universe and The Runaways are showing much more accurate portrayals of women in rock music and also reflecting a stronger more independent portrayal of the female character. They’ve reversed the tables from being the controlled stereotype to taking away its control.